Once the antigens for a vaccine have been identified and chosen, they need to be incorporated into the vaccine itself. Antigens are protein molecules made up of individual building blocks – one of 20 different amino acids – joined together in a particular order. Different parts of the immune system are able to recognize either whole proteins or fragments of proteins called peptides. Proteins and peptides can be incorporated into vaccines directly, by using the tumor as the source of the proteins or peptides, or indirectly, by producing synthetic proteins or peptides in a laboratory.
When protein or peptide-based vaccines are delivered to a patient, the adjuvant activates antigen-presenting cells, which pick up the vaccine proteins or peptides and initiate an immune response against the antigens.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8JSq4x-1htM
Here is how anticancer vacines are produced.
Cancer cells express tissue unspecific proteins. These out-of-place proteins may be recognized by the immune system as inappropriate or “non-self”, though the natural immune responses to cancer-associated antigens is often weak, as these types of antigens are not entirely foreign to the body.
How vacines are made? Scientists grow cells with these target proteins sometimes such organisms as bacteria used, then harvest them, purify antigens and inject to the pacient along with adjuvant.
For a cancer-associated antigen to make a good vaccine target, it must be recognized by the immune system and be absent or nearly absent in normal tissue, present only in normal tissues that are not essential for health, or present only in tissues that cannot be accessed by immune cells. This ensures that when the vaccine is given, the immune response only damages and kills cancer cells, and not healthy cells in the body.
While most cancer-associated antigens are unique to a patient, some are frequently present in certain cancer types. For this cancer-associated antigens, vaccines can potentially be prepared ahead of time, allowing for fast and cost-effective treatment.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_aDflwqE_Ig
Many of you probably would be amazed to learn how many vaccines aganst different types of cancers are now in the development - today I would like explane about one such dtequnicue.
This approach involves constructing a vaccine out of cancer cells that have been removed from the patient during surgery. The killed tumor cells are processed in a lab to make them more "visible" to the immune system, then re-injected into the patient along with an immune-stimulating compound.
The patient's immune system launches a vigorous attack not only on the newly-injected cancer cells but also on similar cells throughout the body. An example of this type of vaccine is GVAX, which is used to treat pancreatic cancer and is the subject of a recently completed clinical trial in patients with acute myelogenous leukemia. A recently opened trial is testing it in pediatric patients with neuroblastoma.
Keep watching in my following videos I will explain other aproaches to create cancer veccine as well.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h8owz5SqghY
A retort flask, also known as a retort, is a type of glassware commonly used in laboratories, especially in historical chemistry practices. Here are some key points about retort flasks:
Design: A retort flask typically has a long, downward-sloping neck and a rounded bottom. The unique shape is designed to efficiently heat, vaporize, and condense chemical substances.
Distillation and Chemical Reactions: Retort flasks are primarily used for distillation processes and for conducting chemical reactions. The long neck acts as a condenser, allowing vapors to cool and condense back into liquid, which can be collected separately.
Material Handling: They are useful for handling liquids that need to be heated and for collecting distilled products. The round bottom allows for uniform heating of the liquid, while the long neck directs the condensate to a specific area for collection.
Historical Significance: Retort flasks have a significant historical role in the development of chemistry. They were widely used in alchemy and early chemical experiments before the modern refinement of distillation apparatus and techniques.
Modern Usage: In modern laboratories, more advanced and efficient equipment like round-bottom flasks and Liebig condensers have largely replaced retort flasks for distillation and many other processes. However, retort flasks may still be found in some educational settings or used for specific applications where their unique shape is advantageous.
Safety Considerations: As with any glassware used for heating and chemical reactions, safety is important when using retort flasks. They need to be handled carefully to prevent breakage, and appropriate safety equipment should be used to avoid burns or exposure to harmful chemicals.
Variants: There are various sizes and designs of retort flasks, some with modifications to suit specific types of reactions or distillation processes.
Overall, while retort flasks are not as commonly used in modern scientific laboratories as they once were, they remain an iconic symbol of chemistry and alchemy and are still useful for certain types of chemical processes.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gcpzTKPzzXs
A Thiele tube, named after the German chemist Johannes Thiele, is a piece of laboratory equipment used primarily in the determination of the melting points of substances. Here are a few key facts about Thiele tubes:
Design and Structure: A Thiele tube is typically made of glass and has a unique design. It consists of an elongated, partially filled bulb connected to an upward-sloping side arm. This design allows for efficient and uniform heating of a substance.
Use in Melting Point Determination: The primary use of a Thiele tube is to determine the melting point of a solid substance. A small sample of the substance is placed in a thin-walled capillary tube, which is then attached to the Thiele tube. The tube is gradually heated, and the point at which the substance in the capillary tube melts is observed.
Oil Bath Principle: The Thiele tube typically contains a heating oil, which serves as the medium for transferring heat uniformly to the sample. The oil bath ensures a steady increase in temperature and a uniform distribution of heat.
Temperature Measurement: A thermometer is often inserted into the oil to closely monitor the temperature. This helps in accurately determining the melting point of the substance being tested.
Safety Considerations: Since the Thiele tube involves heating oil to high temperatures, there are certain safety considerations. It's important to handle the apparatus with care to prevent burns or fire hazards.
Advantages over Other Methods: The Thiele tube method for determining melting points is often preferred over simpler methods, like using a melting point apparatus, due to its ability to provide more accurate and reliable results, especially for substances with high melting points.
Educational Use: In addition to its use in research laboratories, Thiele tubes are commonly used in educational settings, such as university chemistry labs, to teach students about the properties of substances and the concept of melting points.
Thiele tubes exemplify the blend of simplicity and functionality in laboratory equipment, providing an effective means to measure melting points accurately.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lLgfLVxq-Yc
Laboratory test tube clamps, also known as test tube holders, are essential tools in scientific experiments, offering both convenience and safety. Here are a couple of interesting facts about them:
Versatile Design for Safety: Test tube clamps are specially designed to securely hold test tubes, which can become hot or contain hazardous substances. They typically have spring-loaded jaws or adjustable screws to accommodate test tubes of different sizes. This design helps prevent accidents such as spills or breakages by allowing the user to handle test tubes without directly touching them, thereby ensuring safety, especially when the tubes are heated or contain dangerous chemicals.
Material and Heat Resistance: Most test tube clamps are made from materials like stainless steel, aluminum, or nickel-plated brass. These materials are chosen for their durability, corrosion resistance, and ability to withstand high temperatures. Some clamps also have rubber or plastic coatings on the grips to provide additional insulation against heat, making them ideal for use in experiments where test tubes need to be heated over a flame.
These facts underscore the importance of test tube clamps in providing a safe and efficient means of handling test tubes in a variety of laboratory settings, from educational environments to high-end research facilities.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mFZIzhLQWPs
Laboratory evaporation dishes are quite fascinating in their design and use. Here are some interesting facts about them:
Material Composition: Evaporation dishes are usually made of materials that can withstand high temperatures without reacting with the substances they contain. Common materials include porcelain, borosilicate glass, and sometimes stainless steel or platinum for very specific applications.
High Heat Resistance: They are designed to endure direct heating, often over a Bunsen burner or hot plate. This is crucial because evaporation dishes are primarily used for evaporating solvents, which often requires sustained exposure to high temperatures.
Flat Bottom Design: Evaporation dishes typically have a flat bottom, which allows for more uniform heating and evaporation. This design also makes them stable on flat surfaces like hot plates or lab benches.
Wide Range of Capacities: They come in various sizes to accommodate different volumes of solutions. Smaller dishes might be used for tiny samples, while larger ones can handle more substantial quantities.
Chemical Concentration Use: Besides solvent evaporation, they are also used to concentrate solutions by allowing the solvent to evaporate, leaving the dissolved solids behind. This is a common technique in both qualitative and quantitative chemistry.
Versatility in Applications: While most commonly used in chemistry labs, evaporation dishes are also found in biology, pharmacology, and even in the food industry for certain types of analysis and preparation.
Easy to Clean and Reuse: Because of their material and design, they are generally easy to clean and can be reused many times, making them a sustainable option in a laboratory setting.
These characteristics make evaporation dishes an indispensable tool in many scientific and industrial laboratories.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-eLVrqmjq84
Liebig Condenser: The Liebig condenser is one of the simplest and most commonly used types. It consists of a straight glass tube within a larger glass jacket. Coolant (usually water) flows through the jacket, cooling vapors that pass through the inner tube. It's typically used for simple distillation processes where vapors do not require extensive cooling.
Friedrichs (or Friedrich) Condenser: The Friedrichs condenser has an inner coil like the Graham condenser, but also includes a series of bulges or indentations which increase the surface area even more. This design is very effective for refluxing operations where prolonged cooling is required. The large surface area allows for efficient condensation of vapors over a longer period.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HcHrUpjkFqU
A buret, also known as a burette, is an important piece of laboratory equipment used in analytical chemistry. Here are a couple of key facts about burets:
Precision in Volume Measurement: Burets are specifically designed for the precise and accurate delivery of a variable volume of liquid, especially in titrations. They are typically graduated glass tubes with a tap at one end. The precise volume measurements allow chemists to determine the concentration of a substance in a solution with high accuracy.
Use in Titration: One of the primary uses of a buret is in titration experiments, which are used to determine the concentration of a reactant in a solution. During a titration, a known reactant is slowly added from the buret to a known volume of a solution containing the reactant of unknown concentration, until the reaction between the two is complete. The amount of reactant dispensed from the buret helps in calculating the unknown concentration.
These features make burets essential tools in quantitative chemical analysis.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5AwCHyNjMpI
Laboratory crucibles are fascinating and essential tools in scientific research, particularly in chemistry and materials science. Here are a couple of interesting facts about them:
High-Temperature Resistance: One of the most notable features of laboratory crucibles is their ability to withstand very high temperatures. They are often made from materials like porcelain, platinum, quartz, or certain high-grade metals and alloys, each of which can endure the extreme heat often required in laboratory settings. This characteristic makes them ideal for melting or heating substances that require very high temperatures, such as metals and certain chemical compounds.
Historical Significance: Crucibles have been used for thousands of years in various forms. The use of crucibles dates back to ancient times when they were used for metallurgy, particularly for smelting ores and metalworking. The design and materials of crucibles have evolved significantly over the centuries, reflecting advancements in scientific understanding and materials technology. This historical progression from early clay crucibles to today's sophisticated high-tech versions mirrors the development of human technology and science.
These facts highlight the crucible's importance not only as a tool in modern laboratories but also as a significant artifact in the history of science and technology.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Skkwo3S_W7Q
Florence flasks, named after the city of Florence, Italy, are a type of laboratory glassware that have several distinctive features and historical significance. Here are a couple of interesting facts about them:
Design and Usage: Florence flasks, also known as boiling flasks, have a round bottom and a long neck. This design is particularly useful for even heating and boiling of liquids. The round bottom allows for uniform distribution of heat across the liquid's surface, minimizing the risk of superheating and allowing for smoother boiling. The long neck helps in preventing splash-out of the contents when boiling or mixing, making it ideal for distillation and similar processes.
Historical Significance: The name "Florence flask" is derived from their extensive use in alchemical experiments in the Renaissance period, particularly in Florence, which was a center of science and culture. These flasks have been used for centuries in chemical laboratories for various tasks, including simple distillation processes and as vessels for reaction mixtures. Their design has remained relatively unchanged, testifying to the effectiveness of their shape for laboratory purposes.
Florence flasks represent the blend of historical tradition and practical utility in scientific experimentation, embodying the evolution of laboratory apparatus through centuries of scientific inquiry and development.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t2kZHvqYbAE
A beaker is a common piece of laboratory glassware that is used in various scientific experiments. It is typically cylindrical in shape, with a flat bottom, and is available in a wide range of sizes, from a few milliliters to several liters. Beakers are made from glass or plastic and are used for mixing, stirring, and heating liquids. They are characterized by their straight sides and slightly tapered (or sometimes straight) top edge, which makes them different from flasks, which have rounded bottoms and may have narrow necks.
Key features and uses of beakers include:
Mixing and Stirring: Beakers are ideal for mixing chemicals, dissolving solids into liquids, and preparing solutions.
Heating: Glass beakers can be used for heating substances. They can be placed directly on a hot plate or used in conjunction with a Bunsen burner. However, care must be taken as rapid or uneven heating can cause the glass to break.
Rough Volume Measurement: They have graduations (markings) for measuring volumes, but these are approximate and not as precise as those on volumetric glassware, such as volumetric flasks or graduated cylinders.
Transferring Liquids: Although not as precise as pipettes or burettes for transferring measured volumes of liquids, beakers can be used for general pouring and transfer tasks.
Holding Samples: Beakers can hold solid or liquid samples during experiments or while performing analytical procedures.
Observing Chemical Reactions: The wide opening allows for easy observation of the contents and facilitates the addition of materials or the insertion of stirring devices.
Beakers are essential tools in laboratories and are used in a wide array of scientific disciplines, including chemistry, biology, physics, and materials science, among others. Their versatility and ease of use make them indispensable for everyday laboratory tasks.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dmNlVav5TKE
The Erlenmeyer flask is named for Emil Erlenmeyer, the chemist who invented it. This flask is conical, with a flat bottom. Like beakers, these flasks are good for rough volume measurements. The shape of the flask helps prevent splashes and spills.
Question:
Any glassware with a narrow neck and larger base is called a flask. There are many different types. What is this one?
А) Boiling flask
В) Buchner flask
С) Erlenmeyer flask
Д) Florence flask
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B6_7FnnlVtA
Volumetric flasks are fascinating and essential tools in laboratories, especially for tasks requiring high precision in volume measurements. Here are a few interesting facts about them:
Precision Manufacturing: Volumetric flasks are designed to hold a precise volume of liquid at a specific temperature, usually 20°C. The precision in their manufacturing is much higher than that of other laboratory glassware, such as beakers or Erlenmeyer flasks, making them crucial for quantitative chemical analysis.
Unique Shape: They have a distinctive pear shape with a long neck and a flat bottom. The long neck is marked with a single calibration line (etching) that indicates the exact volume the flask is intended to hold when filled up to that mark. This unique shape helps in minimizing errors during volume measurements by allowing for a clear and precise meniscus (the curve seen at the top of a liquid in response to its container) to form at the calibration line.
Color-Coded Stoppers: Volumetric flasks often come with color-coded stoppers or caps, which help in quickly identifying the flask’s volume capacity. This is particularly useful in laboratories where speed and accuracy are paramount, and several different volumes of solutions might be prepared simultaneously.
Temperature Calibration: The volume indicated on a volumetric flask is accurate only at a specific temperature, because liquids expand or contract with temperature changes. Most volumetric flasks are calibrated for 20°C, which is considered the standard laboratory temperature.
Material Choices: While most volumetric flasks are made of glass, particularly borosilicate glass for its thermal and chemical resistance, plastic volumetric flasks are also available. Plastic flasks are less fragile and may be preferred for some applications, though they can be less chemically resistant and more prone to static cling affecting measurements.
Use in Creating Standard Solutions: Volumetric flasks are primarily used to prepare standard solutions in analytical chemistry. A solute is added to the flask, dissolved, and then diluted to the mark with solvent, ensuring a solution of precise concentration for use in various chemical analyses.
International Standards: The production and calibration of volumetric flasks are subject to international standards, ensuring consistency and reliability in scientific measurements across the globe. This standardization is crucial for research reproducibility and accuracy in scientific experiments.
Historical Development: The development and refinement of volumetric flasks have significantly contributed to advancements in analytical chemistry, allowing scientists to conduct more accurate and reproducible experiments. Their use has been critical in developing pharmaceuticals, environmental monitoring, and quality control in various industries.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VXFAKEoeAbQ
One medically important application of tardigrade research could be in vaccine development. As we are now all aware after the recent pandemic, vaccines must be kept at low temperatures.
But maintaining the so-called “cold-chain” can throw up a number of potential issues and is also very costly. One alternative could be to use the inherent properties of intrinsically disordered proteins that protects tardigrades during extreme conditions, - to allow vaccines to be stored at room temperature.
In fact, Thomas Boothby here on the photo from Molecular Biology Department at the University of Wyoming is already working on tweaking some of these proteins so that they can be used in vaccines.
He sais: “We have patents out on these things and have some partnerships,” he said. “If all goes well, hopefully we will see this technology out soon.” Their research has already proven that IDPs can protect protein-based pharmaceuticals (like biologics) around 10 times more efficiently than current FDA-approved protectants.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P194Jt-LY_8
Tardigrades, known for their extreme resilience to harsh conditions, possess a protein called Dsup (Damage Suppressor) that has garnered significant interest for its potential applications in human space travel. This unique protein has been shown to protect and repair DNA damaged by X-rays, a finding that could have profound implications for protecting astronauts from the harmful effects of cosmic radiation. Researchers have successfully transferred the Dsup protein to human cells, enhancing their resistance to radiation damage. This breakthrough suggests that incorporating Dsup into human cells could potentially improve their radio-tolerance, offering a protective advantage for astronauts during long-duration space missions where exposure to radiation is a major concern. However, it's important to note that incorporating Dsup into humans would require genetic manipulations, which are not expected to be feasible in the near future. Moreover, the protein provides only partial protection, indicating that tardigrades likely employ additional strategies to shield themselves from radiation. This discovery not only highlights the incredible resilience of tardigrades but also opens up new avenues for research into enhancing human resistance to radiation, with possible applications in medical treatments, nuclear facility work, and the cultivation of crops in extreme environments such as Mars.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6SnNhZR782A
Despite their tiny stature and their adorable nicknames—moss piglets, water bears—the tenacious tardigrade has some tremendous capabilities. Well-known for being one of the hardiest-known forms of life, tardigrates can survive desiccation, deadly radiation, and even the vacuum of space. Now researchers may finally be starting to tease out the genetic basis of tardigrade superpowers.
In 2015, a study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, suggested that some of their superpowers could come from an another oddball accomplishment of the microscopic creature: DNA theft. The researchers sequenced a tardigrade species' genome and found that roughly one-sixth of its DNA (around 6,600 genes) appeared to come from other organisms, mainly bacteria. These sections of DNA were thought to be picked up through the process of so-called horizontal gene transfers, which is a common in bacteria and other microbes (scientists have only recently discovered some animals can also do this).
“If they can acquire DNA from organisms already living in stressful environments, they may be able to pick up some of the same tricks,” researcher Thomas Boothby, a Life Sciences postdoctoral fellow at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, told Smithsonian.com in 2015.
But just a week after it was published, the study faced steep opposition. Another group of tardigrade researchers claimed that much of the supposedly "stolen" DNA likely came from contamination of the samples from bacteria that lived alongside the tardigrades. "There is no way, biologically, these can be part of the same genome," geneticist Mark Blaxter told Ed Yong of the Atlantic in 2015.
Now Blaxter and his team are back with a new analysis of the tardigrade genome, published in the journal PLOS Biology. "I have been fascinated by these tiny, endearing animals for two decades," Blaxter says in a statement. "It is wonderful to finally have their true genomes, and to begin to understand them."
This latest study compares the genomes of two tardigrade species:Hypsibius dujardini and Ramazzottius varieornatus. Though the research hints at some of the reasons behind tardigrade superpowers, it also sheds light on how little we know about this adaptable critter.
The main superpower the researchers focused on was how the creatures can dry out at years at a time. For most life, desiccation means death. So the team examined genes that are activated under dry conditions, discovering a set of proteins that appear to fill in for water lost in tardigrade cells. By taking the place of the missing water molecules, the proteins prevent the cells structures from collapsing and allows the tiny tardigrade to revive itself when water returns.
The latest study is also providing clues into how tardigrades came to be. Scientists previously suspected that tardigrades may be closely related to the phylum of arthropods, which includes insects and spiders. But this latest study strongly suggests that tardigrades are actually more closely related to nematodes, also known as roundworms. The researchers examined a set genes that determine the layout of an embryo called "HOX genes." They found that, similar to nematodes, both species of tardigrade lack five commons genes from this set.
As for the controversy over how much gene transfer really takes place? It appears to be mostly settled now, reports Tina Hesman Saey from Science News. "The authors' analysis methods, and their methods for getting clean DNA, are certainly an improvement over our own earlier methods," Bob Goldstein, who supervised Boothby's 2015 research, tells Saey.
But the debate about tardigrades amazing superpowers and where they belong on the tree of life is far from settled. Are tardigrades more closely related to arthropods or nematodes? "It’s still an open question," phylogeneticist Max Telford tells Saey.
Even so, Blaxter hopes that his team's tardigrade genomes will continue to help tease out ta...
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FZYv13eaBws
What are the risks associated with animal cloning?
Cloned embryos are more likely to be lost during pregnancy than normal embryos, which accounts for the low success rate of cloning.
Large Offspring Syndrome can also affect some cloned animals. Animals with LOS have growth defects and are considerably larger at birth than animals resulting from natural matings.Large Offspring Syndrome is more often found in cloned animals from livestock species, such as sheep, than in other cloned animals.
These abnormalities may be caused by the conditions used to grow the cells and embryos in the lab, as well as epigenetic imprinting, which might be improved by future research.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_oX9rimsRDU
Today I wanted to share with you my thoughts about the fact that most likely humanity is living out its last days.. Why do I think so? Well, it’s very simple - have you ever heard "Suicide by pilot"? A 2016 study published in Aerospace Medicine and Human Performance analyzed suicide and homicide-suicide events involving aircraft. Yes, yes - this is when the pilot crashes the plane along with the passengers. In the years 1999–2015 the study found 65 cases of pilot suicide (compared to 195 pilot errors) There were 18 cases of homicide-suicide, totaling 732 deaths; of these events, 13 were perpetrated by pilots. (7% of all crashes!)
Now imagine how many biologist-scientists there are in the world, how do they differ from pilots? Well, perhaps none of them pass tests for psychological stability and mental illness... (as you see even this strict screening does not prevent homicide-suicide by pilot cases).
Considering that with the help of AI, the creation of malicious viruses can become like an easy walk to the nearest store - what if a crazy scientist (come on, whom I kidding - any laboratory technician) in a depressed state comes to mind to create such a virus that the most terrible diseases in the history of mankind may seem like just a mild cold, and COVID-19 which claimed tens of millions of lives - just a slight runny nose.
I think this scenario is inevitable... sooner or late it is going to happen.
The clock to the apocalypse is already ticking... it is just a matter of time....
What do you think - write in the comments..
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8kmnyqKZT4c
Did you know that because Dolly's DNA came from a six year old sheep, there were many questions about whether the cloning process had successfully reset the DNA to that of an embryo or whether Dolly carried artifacts in her DNA that would normally be found in an older animals.
This led to speculation about what Dolly’s ‘genetic’ age was and whether she aged more quickly than a sheep that wasn’t a clone. Because Dolly was the first animal to be cloned from an adult cell, scientists did not fully know what happened to the donor DNA during cloning.
Analysis of Dolly’s DNA when she was one year old showed that the protective caps on the end of her chromosomes (known as telomeres) were shorter than those of a normal sheep of the same age.
Telomeres get shorter with age and it is possible that Dolly’s telomeres had not been fully renewed during the cloning process. However, the telomeres of other cloned animals have been found to be a similar length or even longer than those of normal animals. The reasons for these differences in telomere length are not completely clear and require further investigation.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Fq9gR5W1R0